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 Founded upon their prosperous economy, the Tang Empire saw a flowering of creativity in many fields. Science and technology, art, music, painting, pottery, calligraphy, literature and religion all enjoyed a golden age, a flourishing era unprecedented in Chinese history.
Religion
So as to win support from influential religious communities, the Tang government adopted a liberal attitude towards various religions. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism as well as a number of foreign religions each attracted converts in this period.
Buddhism
Buddhism had been introduced to China via the Silk Road during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 AD). After five hundred years of peaks and troughs, it reached its height during the Tang Dynasty. Chang'an, the capital became the main center of Buddhist learning in East Asia. Monasteries and temples were built throughout the country in order to bring the teachings to the people. Some of the emperors adopted Buddhism as their religion. Due to its dominance during the Tang Dynasty, the influence of Buddhism can be seen in a variety of aspects of social life.
The expansion enjoyed by the faith resulted in an increase in temples and the numbers of monks. Shaolin Monastery, one of the most famous Buddhist temples in China, amassed wealth and influence during the Tang and became a place of pilgrimage for both monks and laymen alike. In the capital, Chang'an (present day Xian), Daxingshan Temple, Straw Hut Temple, Xingjiao Si and Xiangji Temple still exist as witness to the glory of Buddhism during the Tang era.
The spread of Buddhism in China increased mutual understanding and links with other countries, promoting friendly relations and cultural exchanges. Many monks traveled into India. The Big White Goose Pagoda and Small White Goose Pagoda serve as reminders of these famous pioneers, such as Monk Xuanzang (602-664), who was a prominent Buddhist traveller and translator and Monk Yijing.
Xuanzang, concerned by the diversification of Buddhism at home, decided to go to India in order to study original texts and teachings. He left Chang'an in 629 to make his pilgrimage. After seventeen years of untold hardships and a journey of some 50,000 kilometers, Xuanzang returned to China bringing with him a large volume of Buddhist scriptures. He then spent twelve years at the Da Ci'en Temple translating the scriptures. The famous novel A Journey to the West is based on his true story.
Another famous monk worthy of mention is Jianzhen (688-763). He was invited to preach in Japan and finally arrived there after five abortive attempts to undertake the journey there. His statue is still enshrined in some Japanese temples to this day.
In the early and middle ninth century, large numbers of Japanese monks were sent to China to study Buddhism scriptures. Among the well-known "eight monks entering the Tang", six monks including Monk Konghai, the most famous one, once studied Buddhism in Qinglong Temple, which is now known as the ancestor temple of Tantra sect of Japan Buddhism.
Taoism (Daoism)
The Tang brought great vitality to Taoism. With the exception of Wu Zetian, all the emperors from the first period of the dynasty embraced Taoism. The growth of this religion can be attributed to two factors. Firstly, the emperors shared the same surname Li with the founder of Taoism, Li Er. As a consequence, they considered themselves to be descendants of Li Er, thus affording a special position to Taoism. Secondly, the so-called "pills of immortality" made by the Taoists to some extent flattered the emperors' belief in their own divine incarnation.
During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, Taoism reached its peak. Taoist buildings were to be found all over the country. However, the faith spread mainly through the upper class and so had less influence when compared with Buddhism.
Foreign Religions
Due to the presence of many foreign merchants, a number of foreign religions were introduced into Tang China. These included Nestorian Christianity, Manicheans, Zoroastrians, Judaism and Islam. However, none of these spread through the population in the way that Buddhism had in earlier times.
Nestorianism was a form of Christianity that had become established in Persia and other Middle Eastern countries. Due to Persia's links with China, it is understandable that Nestorianism should follow in the wake of Persian traders. Early in the Tang Dynasty, Nestorian preachers arrived in China. They preached in the Western Regions and in an area around Gansu Province. In 635 Aluoben, a missionary brought Nestorian scriptures to Chang'an. He was granted an audience with Emperor Taizong, who then granted him permission to teach in the capital city. The Popular Stele of Daqin Nestorianism, which is housed in the Forest of Stone Steles Museum in Xian, marked the opening of a Nestorian church and the spread of this form of religion during the Tang Dynasty.
The other major foreign religion to be introduced at this time was Huijiao. Known today as Islam, it was brought to China by the very many Moslems who came to trade with the empire from the Dashi (Arabian) countries. While most of the traders would return home with the goods they had purchased, some remained in China and set up in business. Consequently, mosques were built and the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou is one of the earliest examples from that period.
The enlightened religious policy exercised by the Tang was welcomed by the many communities within the country and in turn this did much to help consolidate the rule of new dynasty.
Culture
Due to extensive and frequent contact with foreign countries, the culture of the Tang became more splendid, diverse and cosmopolitan than that of any civilization prior to the nineteenth century. In the field of science, and technology there were major achievements in astronomy, geography, medicine and pharmaceutics. The introduction of block printing meant that knowledge could be recorded and shared as at no other time before. Literature and the arts flourished as a consequence of the long period of economic and social stability. This was a time when calligraphy, poetry, music and dance reached a high level of excellence. Painting and sculpture were of the finest quality as eminent artists produced their work for an ever increasing wealthy elite in the thriving cities. Men of letters emerged in large numbers as the demand for education and learning spread among the people. The changes that affected the lifestyle of the Chinese people in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty were reflected in their costumes, recreation and sophistication of articles of daily use.
Science and Technology
The Chinese were the first to develop the process of printing. During the Sui (581-618) and Tang dynasties, engraved plates were widely used to print Buddhist scriptures, calendars and collections of poems. In 1900, a Buddhist scripture produced during the Tang Dynasty was found in Mogao Caves in Dunhuang. Entitled Jingang Jing (Diamond Sutra) this is the oldest example of engraved printing that can be accurately dated.
Monk Yixing was a pre-eminent astronomer and in 724 he directed a survey in the Henan area in order to measure the length of the sun's shadow and the altitude of the North Pole. This was the first recorded ground measurement of the meridian line.
Medicines became highly developed under the Sui and then the Tang. In the early part of Emperor Taizong's reign, the government opened medical schools and specialist subjects were devised and studied. Then during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, the government implemented the compilation of the Tang Materia Medica. This had the distinction of being the first ever pharmacopoeia to be published by a state and it was not for some 800 years or so that a similar project was undertaken in Europe.
This was also a time when skilled doctors came to prominence. Probably the most famous was, Sun Simiao. He studied the practices of previous leading physicians and collected folk remedies. He investigated hitherto secret treatments and acquired medical knowledge from foreign sources. All this he documented and subsequently published his work in two important books: Qianjin Fang (One Thousand Golden Prescriptions) and Qianjin Yifang (One Thousand Supplementary Golden Recipes). Both texts included extensive medical information regarding pharmacology, aetiology, gynaecology, paediatrics, dietetics, acupuncture and moxibustion. Specific diseases were described and a wide collection of prescriptions was included in the books. These works had a distinct influence on and contributed greatly to the development of Chinese medicine. Sun Simiao became know to later generations as the "King of Herbs".
Literature
The Tang Dynasty was the golden age of Chinese poetry. In the number of poems and variety of poetic forms, the beauty of imagery and broadness of themes, Tang poetry surpassed all that had preceded it. The Complete Anthology of Tang Poetry, edited during the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), contains over 50,000 poems written by some two thousand poets. The collection provides a magnificent insight into all aspects of the social life of the period.
Tang poets are held in high regard and among the most notable are Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi.
Li Bai (712-770), the Immortal Poet, living during the peak of the Tang period, wrote as many as nine hundred poems. He was probably the greatest of the ancient Chinese poets. It is generally agreed that between them, Li Bai and Du Fu elevated the poetic form to a level of power and expression that remains unsurpassed by poets of subsequent generations. His work is characterized by its imaginative and unrestrained expression of feeling. Rated as a romantic poet, his writings are endowed with a deep appreciation of people and their lives. The magnificent scenery he saw and enjoyed as well as the profound expression of his own desires and sorrows are subjects of his work.
One of Li Bai's best known poems is Bringing in the Wine, of which the following is a snippet:
Oh, let a man of spirit venture where he pleases.
And never tip his golden cup empty towards the moon!
Since heaven gave the talent, let it be employed!
Du Fu (712 - 770), the Sage of Poets, lived in a period of change when the prosperity of the Tang began to decline. Having suffered obstacles in his official career, he began to travel around the country and to write poetry. Living as a refugee during the Rebellion of An and Shi gave him a personal empathy with the sufferings of the poor. His work shows a great depth of feeling for the plight of the common people. In 759, Du Fu went to live in Chengdu and it is here that his former residence the Thatched Cottage is open for viewing by visitors. Recording as they do both the military and political situations pertaining at this time, Du Fu's poems are referred to as "the mirror of his time". He is regarded as providing a typical representation of realism in poetry.
The most popular of his poems are the Three Officials and Three Leaves.
Bai Juyi (772-846) was the son of an official. As a young man, he wandered about to escape from the wars and hence suffered from poverty and hunger. Later, after having succeeded in the civil service examinations, he served for fifteen years as an official. He was disliked and ostracized by his noble colleagues and was sent away from the capital to work in remote cities.Bai Juyi wrote almost three thousand poems, his output exceeding that of the other Tang poets. With their themes centring on the important social and political problems, Bai Juyi used plain and simple language that proved enlightening even for those who had not received even the poorest education. He also wrote many lyrics expressing his personal feelings. His long narrative poem The Song of the Pipa Player is among the best known. (A pipa is a musical instrument).
Buddhist Art
The prosperity of Buddhism is reflected in the Buddhist art. During both the Sui and Tang periods the most outstanding examples of grotto art were created. In the Longmen Grottoes in Henan Province, there are 2345 caves and niches that contain some 2800 inscriptions, 40 pagodas and over a hundred thousand Buddhist images. Sixty percent of the caves were decorated during the Tang Dynasty. The art is the representative of the political, economic and cultural conditions of the age as seen from the point of view of the Buddhist community. What is considered to be the finest work created during the Tang Dynasty and a consummate example of Chinese Buddhist stone carving, is to be seen in the Fengxiansi Cave, which is the largest of the Longmen Grottoes.
Another important site is the Mogao Caves in Dunhang. The earliest carvings here date from the fourth century but further and the most extensive of the work was completed during the Tang Dynasty. The caves contain 492 murals and statues. Of these, 95 date from the Sui period and 213 from the Tang. This latter figure confirms beyond doubt that the Tang Dynasty was the most outstanding era of cave sculpture.
In addition, Grotto Art in Dazu County, which is referred to as 'The Oriental Carved Bible' is especially famous for its large scale, rich content and exquisite craftsmanship. The Leshan Buddha, which was carved between 713 and 803 is the world's largest sculpture of its kind and was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1996.
Painting And Calligraphy
Known as the 'Sage of Painting', Wu Daozi was one of the most prominent artists of the Tang period. Under his expressive brush, birds, beasts, fish as well as the landscape, plants and people took on vitality and realism. Particularly adept at painting Buddhist and Taoist figures, his artistry adorns most of the temples of Chang'an and Luoyang. In all, over three hundred murals bear his signature.
Calligraphy has been a form of art in China from the earliest times to the present day. The work of the most famous calligraphers of the Tang Dynasty is highly regarded and the masters of the art are Oyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan. Just as handmade illuminated books produced in the West are things of beauty, regardless of the textual content, so calligraphy can be regarded as abstract art. It is pleasing to the eye and gives enjoyment in its form, texture and design.
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